The Rise of the Legions

Rome began as a small city-state in Italy, surrounded by enemies. Its early survival depended on the Legion. Unlike the rigid Greek phalanx, which broke if it lost formation, the Roman maniple system was flexible. It was like a "phalanx with joints," able to adapt to rough terrain and flanking maneuvers.

A Legion consisted of roughly 5,000 heavy infantry, supported by engineers, artillery, and cavalry. Legionaries were professional soldiers, serving for 25 years. They were equipped with the gladius (short sword), pilum (heavy javelin), and scutum (a massive curved shield).

But their greatest weapon was the shovel. Romans fought as much with engineering as with steel. Every night, no matter how tired, they built a fortified camp. They built bridges to cross rivers and walls to encircle enemies. This relentless discipline allowed Rome to absorb catastrophic defeats and keep fighting until they won.

The Legionary

5,000 Men per Legion

25 Years Service

Hannibal at the Gates

Rome's greatest existential threat came from Carthage, a maritime empire in North Africa. The conflict spanned over a century in three Punic Wars. In the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE), the Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca performed the impossible: he marched an army, including war elephants, over the snowy Alps and into Italy.

Hannibal spent 15 years in Italy, destroying Roman army after Roman army. At the Battle of Cannae, he surrounded and slaughtered 50,000 Romans in a single day—possibly the greatest tactical masterpiece in history. It was a national trauma for Rome.

But Rome refused to surrender. Under Scipio Africanus, they rebuilt their armies, invaded Africa, and finally defeated Hannibal at Zama. Decades later, solely to send a message, Rome destroyed Carthage completely, burning the city to the ground.

Hannibal

"I know how to gain a victory, Hannibal, but not how to use it." - Maharbal

Victory: Cannae
Defeat: Zama

Caesar's Conquest of Gaul

In 58 BCE, the ambitious general Julius Caesar marched north to conquer Gaul (modern France). It was a brutal campaign of 8 years aimed at boosting his political power in Rome. Caesar moved with terrifying speed, building bridges across the Rhine and invading Britain just to show he could.

The climax came at the Siege of Alesia in 52 BCE. Caesar trapped the Gallic king Vercingetorix in a hilltop fortress. When a massive Gallic relief army arrived to attack Caesar from behind, Caesar ordered his men to build a second wall around his own army. The Romans fought back-to-back, facing both the besieged city and the relief force.

He won. The victory brought immense wealth to Rome and gave Caesar the fanatical loyalty of the army—loyalty he would use to cross the Rubicon, spark a civil war, and end the Roman Republic.

Veni, Vidi, Vici

"I came, I saw, I conquered."

Siege: Alesia
Rival: Vercingetorix

Death of the Republic

Rome's expansion broke its political system. Powerful generals turned their armies against the state. First Caesar defeated Pompey, bringing an end to the Republic. After Caesar's assassination, his nephew Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.

Octavian became Augustus, the first Emperor. This ushered in the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"), a golden age of relative stability that lasted 200 years. The legions guarded the frontiers, from Hadrian's Wall in Britain to the deserts of Syria.

But peace was maintained by the sword. Rebellions were crushed ruthlessly. In 70 CE, the future emperor Titus crushed a Jewish revolt and destroyed Jerusalem, looting the Temple to fund the Colosseum.

The Empire

At its height, Rome controlled 20% of the world's population.

1st Emperor

200y Pax Romana

The Barbarian Invasions

By the 4th century CE, the Empire was rotting from within and assaulted from without. The economy was collapsing, compelled by hyperinflation and plague. Externally, Germanic tribes—Goths, Vandals, and Franks—were being pushed into Roman territory by the terrifying Huns.

In 378 CE, at the Battle of Adrianople, the Goths annihilated a Roman army and killed Emperor Valens. It was the beginning of the end. The legions, once composed of disciplined citizens, were now filled with mercenaries who had little loyalty to Rome.

In 410 CE, the unthinkable happened: the Visigoth King Alaric sacked the city of Rome itself. The "Eternal City," untouched for 800 years, was pillaged. The spell of invincibility was broken.

The Sacks

Rome was sacked by Visigoths (410) and Vandals (455), shattering the myth of Rome.

The Last Emperor

The end was quiet. In 476 CE, the Germanic warlord Odoacer marched into Ravenna (the new capital) and deposed the boy-emperor Romulus Augustulus.

Odoacer didn't even bother to declare himself emperor; he simply sent the Imperial Regalia to Constantinople and declared himself King of Italy. The Western Roman Empire was gone.

However, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) would survive for another 1,000 years. And in the West, the Latin language, Roman law, and Christianity would survive the chaos to form the foundation of modern Europe.

476 CE

The sun sets on the Ancient World.

Fall: West Empire
Survivor: Byzantium